Global Slavery Index / COuntry Study

Modern slavery in China

Estimated number living in modern slavery:

5,771,000 (4.0

per thousand)

Vulnerability:

46

/100

Government response rating:

40

/100

Population:

1,439,324,000

GDP per capita (PPP):

17,189

(current international $)

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Overview

China’s central role in global production – it is the world’s largest exporter of goods1 – is a cause for concern as exports from China are increasingly at risk of being tainted by state-imposed forced labour. Since 2018, evidence of forced labour of Uyghur and other Turkic and Muslim majority peoples has emerged in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (Uyghur Region).2 Forced labour imposed by private actors is also reported, in addition to forced marriage and organ trafficking, with vulnerability primarily driven by discriminatory government practices. While China demonstrated some efforts to tackle modern slavery through sustained coordination at the national and regional levels – including by adopting a new national action plan for 2021 to 20303 – its overall response is critically undermined by the use of state-imposed forced labour.

Prevalence

The 2023 Global Slavery Index (GSI) estimates that 5.8 million people were living in modern slavery in China on any given day in 2021. This equates to four in every thousand people in the country, which places China at 19 out of 27 countries in the region. It is second only to India when the estimated number of people living in modern slavery is considered. This estimate does not include figures on organ trafficking, which evidence indicates does occur in China.

Forced labour

State-imposed forced labour

Since the 2018 GSI, evidence of systematic oppression and pervasive state-imposed forced labour of Uyghurs and other Turkic and Muslim majority peoples has emerged.4 Forced labour is exacted by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) as a means of racial and religious discrimination; political coercion and education; and as punishment for holding views ideologically opposed to the state.5 It is reported alongside mass surveillance, political indoctrination, religious oppression,6 forced separation of families,7 forced sterilisation,8 torture, sexual violence,9 and arbitrary detention in so-called “re-education camps” within the Uyghur Region.10

Forced labour is exacted under the guise of vocational training and poverty alleviation – a scheme promulgated by the CCP to raise living standards in “ethnic areas.”11 It is primarily facilitated through the transfer of rural populations to work in farms and factories, and the involuntary placement of detainees and ex-detainees in factories located inside or near “re-education camps” in the Uyghur Region and factories across China.12 Several global supply chains are tainted by this exploitation, including cotton,13 garments,14 electronics,15 polyvinyl chloride (PVC),16 solar-grade polysilicon (used in solar panels),17 and personal protective equipment (PPE).18 Similar patterns of abuse are evident in the Tibet Autonomous Region, with reports of labour transfers occurring in construction, textiles, security, and agriculture both as a means of religious discrimination and political indoctrination of Tibetans.19

Forced labour is also reported in the prison system administered by the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps (XPCC) – the Chinese government’s state-run paramilitary corporate conglomerate in the Uyghur Region.20 The XPCC operates several farms, factories, and enterprises out of its prisons that produce coal, cotton, textiles, bricks, plastics, agricultural and other products using forced labour of Uyghur peoples.21 Han Chinese imprisoned within the XPCC system are also reportedly subject to forced labour.22 Further, there are reports of forced labour within the general prison system of those convicted of a political offence,23 of those suffering drug addictions in rehabilitation centres, and of women charged with sex work who are forced to work in “education centres.”24 State-imposed forced labour of North Koreans is also documented in China,25 with workers’ wages reportedly stripped by the North Korean government.26

Forced labour exploitation

Forced labour exploitation of citizens and foreign migrants is also imposed by the private economy, including in factories, brick kilns, coal mines, fishing, domestic servitude, and forced begging.27 Since the 2018, reports of forced labour of students placed into production line jobs masked as internships have continued, with cases recorded in automobile28 and electronics factories.29 Forced labour and abuse is also well-documented in the fishing sector,30 including on distant water longline fleets,31 Ghanaian flagged industrial trawl fleets operated by Chinese corporations,32 and Chinese vessels fishing illegally in Somali waters.33 Fishers have reported experiencing wage withholding, food deprivation, physical and sexual violence, restricted movement, and debt bondage, and other abuses at sea.34

Forced labour of Chinese workers is not confined within the country’s borders. Reports indicate that Chinese migrants are trafficked into Chinese cyber-scam schemes operating out of Cambodia.35 Chinese citizens are also deceived into exploitative jobs along China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)36 – a major infrastructure project seeking to expand China-linked trade and investment across Asia, Africa, and Europe.37 A 2021 report found that Chinese employers on BRI projects in Algeria, Indonesia, Jordan, Pakistan, Serbia, Singapore, and other countries forced Chinese citizens to work through threats, violence, withholding of passports and wages, debt bondage, and other abuses.38 The workers were typically recruited from rural areas under deceptive conditions, made to pay exorbitant fees and sign false contracts, and were issued incorrect visas, limiting their ability to seek help once overseas. This abuse continued through the pandemic, with workers forced to work at high risk of infection, or made to isolate with no means to return home.39

Forced commercial sexual exploitation of adults

Sex work is criminalised in China,40 yet Chinese and foreign women and children are reportedly trafficked for sexual exploitation within the sex industry.41 In 2020, for example, Colombian police arrested seven people who allegedly recruited women via social media with false promises of modelling work, and trafficked them to China for sexual exploitation.42 A 2019 report based on interviews with 45 North Korean victims and survivors of sex trafficking in China found that the majority were targeted by traffickers after arriving in the country, and were either coerced, abducted, or sold into the sex industry.43 Another investigation found that North Korean women and girls were forced into sexual exploitation online while trapped in apartments.44

Commercial sexual exploitation of children

Perpetrators similarly subject children to commercial sexual exploitation (CSEC) in China. North Korean girls as young as nine are reportedly forced into online commercial sexual exploitation in China.45 Girls from other neighbouring countries such as Lao PDR46 and Vietnam47 are also trafficked to China for sexual exploitation. While less is known about the experiences of boys, Mongolian boys are reportedly vulnerable to being trafficked across the Chinese border for forced labour and sexual exploitation.48

Forced marriage

Forced marriage in China is fuelled by the skewed ratio of men to women – a result of the controversial one-child policy implemented between 1979 and 2015 that led to nearly 21 million “missing women.”49 This generated a demand for brides and a surge in the marriage brokering profession – a trade that has drawn human traffickers: women are trafficked from neighbouring countries such as Myanmar,50 Vietnam,51 Pakistan,52 Lao PDR,53 and Cambodia54 to fulfil the bride shortage. Forced marriage may lead to other forms of exploitation, including domestic servitude, forced labour,55 and forced sexual exploitation.56 Forced surrogacy and trafficking of pregnant women to China to sell their babies has also been observed.57

Further, a growing body of evidence suggests Uyghur women are coerced by the government into marriages with Han Chinese.58 Since 2014, the CCP has offered economic incentives, and more recently, circulated films to encourage Uyghur-Han marriages, proclaiming the need for greater unity an “ethnic fusion.”59 In reality, Uyghurs reportedly have no choice; they may be offered the release of a family member from detention if they marry, or face detention themselves if they refuse.60

Organ trafficking

In 2019, an Independent Tribunal into Forced Organ Harvesting from Prisoners of Conscience in China concluded that practitioners of Falun Gong – a persecuted traditional spiritual practice – were used for forced organ harvesting in China and there is no evidence the practice has ceased.61 A considerable amount of direct evidence was considered in the judgement, including witness accounts of live organ harvesting following lethal injection.62 Motivations are thought to include financial profit, development of organ transplant skills, and the suppression of Falun Gong.63

Imported products at risk of modern slavery

China is not only affected by modern slavery within its borders: as one of the world’s largest economies, China – like other G20 countries – is exposed to the risk of modern slavery through the products it imports. Nearly two-thirds of all forced labour cases are linked to global supply chains, with workers exploited across a wide range of sectors and at every stage of the supply chain. Most forced labour occurs in the lowest tiers of supply chains; that is, in the extraction of raw materials and in production stages. Given the G20’s level of influence in the global economy, it is critical to examine their imports at risk of forced labour and efforts to address this risk. China imports US$17.2 billion products at-risk of being made using forced labour annually. Table 1 below highlights the top five most valuable products (according to US$ value per annum) imported by China that are at risk of being produced under conditions of modern slavery.

Table 1: Imports of products at risk of modern slavery to China
Product at risk of modern slavery Import value(in billions of US$) Source countries
Palm oil 6.3 Indonesia, Malaysia
Timber 3.9 Brazil, Peru, Russia
Cattle 3.9 Brazil
Garments 1.7 Argentina, Bangladesh, Brazil, India, Malaysia, Vietnam
Sugarcane 1.4 Brazil

Vulnerability

Governance issues Lack of basic needs Inequality Disenfranchised groups Effects of conflict Overall weighted average
51/100 30/100 36/100 68/100 34/100 46/100

Vulnerability to modern slavery in China largely derives from harmful and discriminatory government practices including state-imposed forced labour, organ harvesting, and forced marriage, which predominantly affect religious and ethnic groups. This is reflected by higher vulnerability scores for disenfranchised groups and governance issues.

Forced labour of Uyghur peoples has been aided by a steady campaign to amass control in the Uyghur Region, involving mass surveillance,64 leveraging global terrorist threats to justify indoctrination on the grounds of religious extremism,65 and the use of economic incentives to shift the demography of the Uyghur Region in favour of Han Chinese.66 A 2020 investigation found that forced birth control has become systematic in the far west of the Uyghur Region.67 The US government and several parliaments have stated that China’s treatment of Uyghur peoples amounts to genocide.68

Mass surveillance and internment of Uyghurs is facilitated in several ways, including the assignment of Chinese cadres to live in Uyghur households,69 and a mobile app used by authorities to detect behaviour that allegedly deviates from the norm, such as a person using a mobile phone other than their own.70 Punishment varies from confinement in one’s registered residence, to re-education or prison detention.71 After a period of internment, detainees may be transferred into forced labour.72 Uyghur children, according to reports, are forcibly removed from their homes and placed in government-run institutions,73 in contravention with international standards,74 and may experience increased vulnerability to modern slavery due to family separation.75

Internal migrant workers are also particularly vulnerable to exploitation in China. Unable to find work in their hometowns, rural populations migrate to urban areas such as Guangdong and Shanghai to take up low-paid jobs,76 becoming part of China’s “floating population” of around 376 million.77 Compared to urban residents, internal migrants typically lack equal access to social benefits under the hukou (household registration) system, which restricts the provision of social benefits to citizens’ registered residence.78 Despite some reforms to the system, rural migrants without local registration are denied access to public services, making it more difficult for them to make a decent living, particularly during the pandemic, widening social inequality.79 

A flow-on effect of the large-scale migration of rural Chinese is the “left-behind” children, defined as those under 16 years of age whose parents are both migrant workers.80 These children face barriers to education, increased risk of poverty, and psychological stress due to family separation.81 Reports suggest these children may be at higher risk of trafficking for forced labour, forced begging, and CSEC.82

Gender inequality is also a significant driver of vulnerability; patriarchal attitudes have driven a pronounced gender imbalance in China under the country’s historical one child policy,83 with the resulting bride shortage fuelling forced marriages of foreign women to Chinese men. Women and girls from across the region are trafficked to China, often deceived with false promises of work and improved opportunity.84

Government response

Survivors of slavery are identified Criminal justice mechanisms National and regional level coordination Risk factors are addressed Government and business supply chains Total
41/100 46/100 50/100 36/100 13/100 40/100

China’s government response to modern slavery received a rating of 42 per cent, ranking in the bottom half of 32 countries assessed in the region. While the government takes some measures to respond to modern slavery among the general population, its overall response is belied by the active use of state-imposed forced labour against certain groups, which it continues to deny.

The government has taken some steps to identify and assist survivors, for example, through supporting trafficking identification training for police, Ministry of Public Security officials,85 social workers, and teachers.86 Mechanisms for the public to report trafficking87 and labour grievances88 also exist, however it is unclear how operational these are. Further, there are no national guidelines available for first responders to identify modern slavery, and no national referral mechanism to ensure survivors receive services. While there are shelters, they do not offer specialised support and are reportedly difficult for males to access.89 Victims may also be deterred from seeking help given the possibility that they might be punished for crimes they were forced to commit.90 Protection from criminalisation is not enshrined in law, and information indicates that victims of sex trafficking were arrested during the reporting period.91

There are several other critical gaps in the legal framework that weaken China’s criminal justice response. China has not criminalised slavery, CSEC, or human trafficking in line with international standards – trafficking of women and children up to the age of 14 is criminalised under Article 240 of the Criminal Law, however this does not extend to males over the age of 14.92 Forced labour is a criminal offense under section 244 of the Criminal Law93 and China is one of ten countries in the region to criminalise forced marriage.94 Despite this, women who escaped and reported their situation to police were, in some cases, forcibly returned to their abuser.95 The denial of modern slavery crimes in place of active enforcement of the law, allowing perpetrators to operate with impunity, remains a serious concern. During the reporting period, the government ratified the ILO Forced Labour Convention, 1930 and Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957, which will enter into force in August 2023. Yet concerns have been raised over the unlikely implementation of the conventions.96

China demonstrated efforts to tackle modern slavery through coordination at the national and regional level, including by adopting a new national action plan for 2021 to 2030,97 participating in joint anti-trafficking investigations with other countries,98 and maintaining bilateral agreements to cooperate on modern slavery issues.99 China has also taken action to eliminate forced labour from the economy: the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security (MOHRSS) implements a grading system that measures employers’ compliance with labour regulations. Employer misconduct (such as non-payment of wages or forced overtime) is publicised and offenders are subject to more frequent labour inspections.100

While a positive development, the system is insufficient to prevent modern slavery in the Chinese economy. Chinese law does not prohibit charging of recruitment fees to employees, nor does it explicitly govern collective bargaining procedures.101 Freedom of assembly is heavily suppressed in practice, with only one legal labour union in existence,102 meaning modern slavery is more likely to go unpunished. China has also continued to import coal from North Korea,103 where the use of forced labour is widely known,104 despite international sanctions against this trade.105 Most critically, the CCP is actively perpetrating forced labour against Uyghur and other Turkic and Muslim majority peoples, Tibetans, and those in prison – the goods produced through this abuse enter global supply chains. State-imposed forced labour fundamentally undermines the government’s response to modern slavery.

Recommendations

Survivors identified and supported

  • Finalise and distribute national identification guidelines for all first responders, and establish a national referral mechanism to ensure all victims are referred to services and no victims are detained or deported.

  • Ensure survivor support services, including shelters, crisis support centres, and community-based protection, cover all populations – including males – and make specialised support available for children.

Criminal justice mechanisms

  • Amend article 240 of the Criminal Law to include men and boys over the age of 14 as possible victims of human trafficking, in line with international standards.

  • Strengthen legislation to protect survivors of exploitation by ensuring they are not treated as criminals for conduct that occurred while under the control of traffickers.

Risk factors are addressed

  • Immediately end the forced marriage of Uyghurs and other Turkic majority peoples, and the state-imposed forced labour of Uyghurs and other Turkic and Muslim majority peoples, Tibetans, and prisoners by repealing legislation and criminalising practices that allow forced marriage and state-imposed forced labour to occur.

  • Reform the hukou system to ensure all rural migrants are afforded equal access to social welfare including education, medical services, and social insurance.

  • Introduce and enforce legislation to prohibit charging of recruitment fees to employees.

  • Pass legislation stipulating collective bargaining procedures, strengthen protections for freedom of association and expression, and ensure that labour inspections are regularly conducted across all sectors, including the informal sector.

  • Prosecute government officials for corruption and complicity in modern slavery cases.

Government and business supply chains

  • Introduce mandatory human rights due diligence to stop governments and businesses sourcing goods or services linked to modern slavery.

Endnotes

1International Monetary Fund 2023, World Economic Outlook Database: April 2023. Available from: https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo‐database/2023/April. [01 May 2023].
2See for example: Lehr, A & Bechrakis, M 2019, Connecting the Dots in Xinjiang Forced Labor, Forced Assimilation, and Western Supply Chains, Center for Strategic and International Studies. Available from: https://csis‐website‐prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs‐public/publication/Lehr_ConnectingDotsXinjiang_interior_v3_FULL_WEB.pdf. [14 December 2021]; Murphy, L & Elimä, N 2021, In Broad Daylight: Uyghur Forced Labour and Global Solar Supply Chains, Sheffield Hallam University Helena Kennedy Centre for International Justice. Available from: https://www.shu.ac.uk/helena‐kennedy‐centre‐international‐justice/research‐and‐projects/all‐projects/in‐broad‐daylight. [23 March 2022]; Human Rights Council 2022, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, including its causes and consequences, Tomoya Obokata, on Contemporary forms of slavery affecting persons belonging to ethnic, religious and linguistic minority communities A/HRC/51/26, United Nations, pp. 7‐8. Available from: https://undocs.org/Home/Mobile?FinalSymbol=A%2FHRC%2F51%2F26&Language=E&DeviceType=Desktop&LangRequested=False. [22 August 2022].
3General Office of the State Council 2021, Chinas Action Plan Against Human Trafficking (2021‐2030), China Law Translate. Available from: https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/countertraffickingplan2021thr2030/. [10 August 2022].
4 See for example: Xu, VX, Cave, D, Leibold, J, Munro, K & Ruser, N 2020, Uyghurs for sale: Re‐education, forced labour and surveillance beyond Xinjiang, Australian Strategic Policy Institute. Available from: https://www.aspi.org.au/report/uyghurs‐sale. [14 December 2021]; Ling, Y 2019, Released from Camps, Uyghurs Subjected to Forced Labor’, Bitter Winter, 23 December. Available From: https://bitterwinter.org/uyghurs‐subjected‐to‐forced‐labor/. [12 August 2020]; Lehr, A & Bechrakis, M 2019, Connecting the Dots in Xinjiang Forced Labor, Forced Assimilation, and Western Supply Chains, Center for Strategic and International Studies. Available from: https://csis‐website‐prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs‐public/publication/Lehr_ConnectingDotsXinjiang_interior_v3_FULL_WEB.pdf. [14 December 2021]; Fifield, A 2020, China compels Uighurs to work in shoe factory that supplies Nike’, The Washington Post, 29 February. Available From: https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/china‐compels‐uighurs‐to‐work‐in‐shoe‐factory‐that‐supplies‐nike/2020/02/28/ebddf5f4‐57b2‐11ea‐8efd‐0f904bdd8057_story.html. [12 August 2020]; Swanson, A & Buckley, C 2022, ‘Red Flags for Forced Labor Found in China’s Car Battery Supply Chain’, The New York Times, 20 June. Available From: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/20/business/economy/forced‐labor‐china‐supply‐chain.html. [2 August 2022].
5According to Walk Free’s assessment based on Article 1 of the Abolition of Forced Labour Convention (C105) 1957. Any form of forced or compulsory labour carried out a) as a means of political coercion or education or as a punishment for holding or expressing political views or views ideologically opposed to the established political, social or economic system; (b) as a method of mobilising and using labour for purposes of economic development; (c) as a means of labour discipline; (d) as a punishment for having participated in strikes; or (e) as a means of racial, social, national or religious discrimination, is prohibited under article 1 of the  Abolition of Forced Labour Convention (C105) 1957. The Convention will enter into force in China on 12 August 2023.
6Human Rights Watch 2019, Chinas Algorithms of Repression: Reverse Engineering a Xinjiang Police Mass Surveillance App, Human Rights Watch, p. 1. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/05/01/chinas‐algorithms‐repression/reverse‐engineering‐xinjiang‐police‐mass‐surveillance. [29 September 2020]; Allen‐Ebrahimian, B 2019, Exposed: Chinas Operating Manuals for Mass Internment and Arrest by Algorithm, International Consortium of Investigative Journalists. Available from: https://www.icij.org/investigations/china‐cables/exposed‐chinas‐operating‐manuals‐for‐mass‐internment‐and‐arrest‐by‐algorithm/. [12 August 2020]; Alecci, S 2019, ‘How China Targets Uighurs ‘One by One’ for Using a Mobile App’, International Consortium of Investigative Journalists, 24 November. Available From: https://www.icij.org/investigations/china‐cables/how‐china‐targets‐uighurs‐one‐by‐one‐for‐using‐a‐mobile‐app. [4 January 2020].
7Human Rights Watch 2019, ‘China: Xinjiang Children Separated from Families’, Human Rights Watch, 15 September. Available From: https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/09/15/china‐xinjiang‐children‐separated‐families. [3 August 2022]; Human Rights Watch 2018, ‘China: Children Caught in Xinjiang Crackdown’, Human Rights Watch, 16 October. Available From: https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/10/16/china‐children‐caught‐xinjiang‐crackdown. [3 August 2022]; Human Rights Watch 2021, Break Their Lineage, Break Their Roots Chinas Crimes against Humanity Targeting Uyghurs and Other Turkic Muslims. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/04/19/break‐their‐lineage‐break‐their‐roots/chinas‐crimes‐against‐humanity‐targeting. [17 June 2022].
8The Associated Press 2020, ‘China cuts Uighur births with IUDs, abortion, sterilization’, The Associated Press, 29 June. Available From: https://apnews.com/269b3de1af34e17c1941a514f78d764c. [12 August 2020].
9Hill, M, Campanale, D & Gunter, J 2021, ‘Their goal is to destroy everyone’: Uighur camp detainees allege systematic rape’, BBC News, 2 February. Available From: https://www.bbc.com/news/world‐asia‐china‐55794071. [16 February 2021]; Amnesty International 2021, Like we were enemies in a war: Chinas mass internment, torture and persecution of muslims in Xinjiang. Available from: https://xinjiang.amnesty.org/wp‐content/uploads/2021/06/ASA_17_4137‐2021_Full_report_ENG.pdf. [19 August 2022].
10 Xu, VX, Cave, D, Leibold, J, Munro, K & Ruser, N 2020, Uyghurs for sale: Re‐education, forced labour and surveillance beyond Xinjiang, Australian Strategic Policy Institute, p. 4. Available from: https://www.aspi.org.au/report/uyghurs‐sale; Ruser, N 2020, Documenting Xinjiangs detention system, Australian Strategic Policy Institute, p. 3. Available from: https://cdn.xjdp.aspi.org.au/wp‐content/uploads/2020/09/25125443/documenting‐xinjiangs‐detention‐system.cleaned.pdf. [29 September 2020]; Mauk, B 2021, ‘Inside Xinjiang’s Prison State’, The New Yorker, 26 February. Available From: https://www.newyorker.com/news/a‐reporter‐at‐large/china‐xinjiang‐prison‐state‐uighur‐detention‐camps‐prisoner‐testimony?utm_campaign=likeshopme&client_service_id=31202&utm_social_type=owned&utm_brand=tny&service_user_id=1.78e+16&utm_content=instagram‐bio‐link&utm_source=instagram&utm_medium=social&client_service_name=the%20new%20yorker&supported_service_name=instagram_publishing. [2 August 2022]; Newlines Institute & Raoul Wallenberg Centre for Human Rights 2021, The Uyghur Genocide: An Examination of Chinas Breaches of the 1948 Genocide Convention, p. 25. Available from: https://newlinesinstitute.org/wp‐content/uploads/Chinas‐Breaches‐of‐the‐GC3‐2.pdf. [2 August 2022]; Haitiwaji, G & Morgat, R 2021, ‘‘Our souls are dead’: how I survived a Chinese ‘re‐education’ camp for Uyghurs’, The Guardian, 12 January. Available From: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/12/uighur‐xinjiang‐re‐education‐camp‐china‐gulbahar‐haitiwaji. [13 September 2022]; Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights 2022, OHCHR Assessment of human rights concerns in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, Peoples Republic of China, United Nations. Available from: https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/countries/2022‐08‐31/22‐08‐31‐final‐assesment.pdf. [2 September 2022].
11Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 9 of the Convention, Fourteenth to seventeenth periodic reports of States parties due in 2015: China, CERD/C/CHN/14‐17. Available from: https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CERD/C/CHN/14‐17&Lang=en [12 August 2020]; Human Rights Council 2022, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, including its causes and consequences, Tomoya Obokata, on Contemporary forms of slavery affecting persons belonging to ethnic, religious and linguistic minority communities A/HRC/51/26, United Nations, pp. 7‐8. Available from: https://undocs.org/Home/Mobile?FinalSymbol=A%2FHRC%2F51%2F26&Language=E&DeviceType=Desktop&LangRequested=False. [22 August 2022]; Lehr, A & Bechrakis, M 2019, Connecting the Dots in Xinjiang Forced Labor, Forced Assimilation, and Western Supply Chains, Center for Strategic and International Studies. Available from: https://csis‐website‐prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs‐public/publication/Lehr_ConnectingDotsXinjiang_interior_v3_FULL_WEB.pdf. [14 December 2021].
12See for example: Lehr, A & Bechrakis, M 2019, Connecting the Dots in Xinjiang Forced Labor, Forced Assimilation, and Western Supply Chains, Center for Strategic and International Studies. Available from: https://csis‐website‐prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs‐public/publication/Lehr_ConnectingDotsXinjiang_interior_v3_FULL_WEB.pdf. [14 December 2021]; Xu, VX, Cave, D, Leibold, J, Munro, K & Ruser, N 2020, Uyghurs for sale: Re‐education, forced labour and surveillance beyond Xinjiang, Australian Strategic Policy Institute. Available from: https://www.aspi.org.au/report/uyghurs‐sale. [14 December 2021]; Ling, Y 2019, ‘Released from Camps, Uyghurs Subjected to Forced Labor’, Bitter Winter, 23 December. Available From: https://bitterwinter.org/uyghurs‐subjected‐to‐forced‐labor/. [12 August 2020]; Murphy, LT, Vallette, J & Elimä, N 2022, Built on Repression: PVC Building Materials Reliance on Labor and Environmental Abuses in the Uyghur Region, Sheffield Hallam University Helena Kennedy Centre for International Justice. Available from: https://acrobat.adobe.com/link/track?uri=urn%3Aaaid%3Ascds%3AUS%3A9b472e06‐2bc7‐49bb‐82b0‐7b1f85555b2c#pageNum=2. [2 August 2022]; Murphy, L & Elimä, N 2021, In Broad Daylight: Uyghur Forced Labour and Global Solar Supply Chains, Sheffield Hallam University Helena Kennedy Centre for International Justice. Available from: https://www.shu.ac.uk/helena‐kennedy‐centre‐international‐justice/research‐and‐projects/all‐projects/in‐broad‐daylight. [23 March 2022].
13Sudworth, J 2020, ‘China’s ‘tainted’ cotton’, BBC News, December. Available From: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/extra/nz0g306v8c/china‐tainted‐cotton. [14 December 2021]; Kelly, A 2020, ‘‘Virtually entire’ fashion industry complicit in Uighur forced labour, say rights groups’, The Guardian, 23 July. Available From: https://www.theguardian.com/global‐development/2020/jul/23/virtually‐entire‐fashion‐industry‐complicit‐in‐uighur‐forced‐labour‐say‐rights‐groups‐china. [13 December 2021]; Murphy, L, et al., 2021, Laundering Cotton: How Xinjiang Cotton is Obscured in International Supply Chains, Sheffield Hallam University Helena Kennedy Centre. Available from: https://www.shu.ac.uk/helena‐kennedy‐centre‐international‐justice/research‐and‐projects/all‐projects/laundered‐cotton. [18 November 2021].
14 Lehr, A & Bechrakis, M 2019, Connecting the Dots in Xinjiang Forced Labor, Forced Assimilation, and Western Supply Chains, Center for Strategic and International Studies. Available from: https://csis‐website‐prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs‐public/publication/Lehr_ConnectingDotsXinjiang_interior_v3_FULL_WEB.pdf. [14 December 2021]; Xu, VX, Cave, D, Leibold, J, Munro, K & Ruser, N 2020, Uyghurs for sale: Re‐education, forced labour and surveillance beyond Xinjiang, Australian Strategic Policy Institute. Available from: https://www.aspi.org.au/report/uyghurs‐sale. [14 December 2021].
15 Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2021, Trafficking in Persons Report: China Country Narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 174‐180. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2021/07/TIP_Report_Final_20210701.pdf. [14 December 2021]; Xu, VX, Cave, D, Leibold, J, Munro, K & Ruser, N 2020, Uyghurs for sale: Re‐education, forced labour and surveillance beyond Xinjiang, Australian Strategic Policy Institute. Available from: https://www.aspi.org.au/report/uyghurs‐sale. [14 December 2021].
16Murphy, LT, Vallette, J & Elimä, N 2022, Built on Repression: PVC Building Materials Reliance on Labor and Environmental Abuses in the Uyghur Region, Sheffield Hallam University Helena Kennedy Centre for International Justice. Available from: https://acrobat.adobe.com/link/track?uri=urn%3Aaaid%3Ascds%3AUS%3A9b472e06‐2bc7‐49bb‐82b0‐7b1f85555b2c#pageNum=2. [2 August 2022].
17Murphy, L & Elimä, N 2021, In Broad Daylight: Uyghur Forced Labour and Global Solar Supply Chains, Sheffield Hallam University Helena Kennedy Centre for International Justice. Available from: https://www.shu.ac.uk/helena‐kennedy‐centre‐international‐justice/research‐and‐projects/all‐projects/in‐broad‐daylight. [23 March 2022].
18Knaus, C & Davidson, H 2020, ‘Face masks made with allegedly forced Uighur labour in China are being sold in Australia’, The Guardian, 22 July. Available From: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jul/22/face‐masks‐made‐with‐allegedly‐forced‐uighur‐labour‐in‐china‐are‐being‐sold‐in‐australia. [3 August 2022].
19Cadell, C 2020, ‘Exclusive: China sharply expands mass labor program in Tibet’, Reuters, 22 September. Available From: https://www.reuters.com/article/us‐china‐rights‐tibet‐exclusive‐idUSKCN26D0GT. [13 September 2022]; Human Rights Council 2022, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, including its causes and consequences, Tomoya Obokata, on Contemporary forms of slavery affecting persons belonging to ethnic, religious and linguistic minority communities A/HRC/51/26, United Nations, pp. 7‐8. Available from: https://undocs.org/Home/Mobile?FinalSymbol=A%2FHRC%2F51%2F26&Language=E&DeviceType=Desktop&LangRequested=False. [22 August 2022].
20Murphy, LT, Elimä, N & Tobin, D 2022, Until Nothing Is Left: Chinas Settler Corporation and its Human Rights Violations in the Uyghur Region. A Report on the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps, Sheffield Hallam University Kennedy Centre for International Justice, pp. 44‐52. Available from: https://acrobat.adobe.com/link/track?uri=urn:aaid:scds:US:ade22259‐dbe7‐4628‐8975‐d808850e7b20#pageNum=2. [2 August 2022].
21As above
22Uyghur Human Rights Project 2018, The Bingtuan: Chinas Paramilitary Colonizing Force in East Turkestan, p. 16. Available from: https://docs.uhrp.org/pdf/bingtuan.pdf [12 August 2020].
23Blanchard, B 2022, ‘Taiwan activist says did forced labour in China but not tortured’, Reuters, 10 May. Available From: https://www.reuters.com/world/asia‐pacific/taiwan‐activist‐says‐did‐forced‐labour‐china‐not‐tortured‐2022‐05‐10/. [13 September 2022]; 2022, ‘Activist Lawyer Cheng Yuan subjected to forced labour and political indoctrination in Hunan prison’, PIME Asia News, 13 July. Available From: https://www.asianews.it/news‐en/Activist‐Lawyer‐Cheng‐Yuan‐subjected‐to‐forced‐labour‐and‐political‐indoctrination‐in‐Hunan‐prison‐56252.html. [13 September 2022].
24Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report: China Country Narrative, United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2022‐trafficking‐in‐persons‐report/china/. [12 September 2022].
25 Pattison, P, Bremer, I & Kelly, A 2020, ‘UK sourced PPE from factories secretly using North Korean slave labour’, The Guardian, 21 November. Available From: https://www.theguardian.com/global‐development/2020/nov/20/uk‐sourced‐ppe‐from‐factories‐secretly‐using‐north‐korean‐slave‐labour. [22 August 2022].
26 Walk Free & Leiden Asia Centre 2018, Pervasive, Punitive, and Predetermined: Understanding Modern Slavery in North Korea. Available from: https://www.walkfree.org/resources/. [13 January 2022].
27Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report: China Country Narrative, United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2022‐trafficking‐in‐persons‐report/china/. [12 September 2022]; Blue Dragon Children’s Foundation 2021, What Makes People Vulnerable to Human Trafficking, pp. 10‐11. Available from: https://www.bluedragon.org/wp‐content/uploads/2021/11/What‐makes‐victims‐vulnerable‐to‐TIP‐Nov‐9‐2021.pdf. [14 September 2022].
28China Labor Watch 2020, Students Forced to Intern at Wuling Motors. Available from: https://3on4k646b3jq16ewqw1ikcel‐wpengine.netdna‐ssl.com/wp‐content/uploads/2021/04/Wuling‐Motors‐report.pdf. [12 September 2022].
29China Labor Watch 2019, Amazons Supplier Factory Foxconn Recruits Illegally: Interns Forced to Work Overtime, pp. 1‐6. Available from: https://3on4k646b3jq16ewqw1ikcel‐wpengine.netdna‐ssl.com/wp‐content/uploads/2021/04/Amazon‐English‐Report‐08.09.pdf. [12 September 2022].
302019, ‘‘Slavery’ on the Seas: Forced Labor Widespread in Global Fishing Industry’, The Globe Post. Available from: https://theglobepost.com/2019/05/29/fishing‐slavery‐indonesia/. [30 October 2020]; McVeigh, K & Firdaus, F 2020, ‘‘Hold on, brother’: the final days of the doomed crew on the Long Xing 629’, The Guardian, 7 July. Available From: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jul/07/hold‐on‐brother‐final‐days‐of‐doomed‐crew‐on‐chinese‐shark‐finning‐boat. [9 September 2022].
31Greenpeace & SBMI 2019, Seabound: The Journey to Modern Slavery on the High Seas, Greenpeace. Available from: https://storage.googleapis.com/planet4‐southeastasia‐stateless/2019/12/b68e7b93‐greenpeace‐seabound‐book‐c.pdf. [30 October 2020].
32 Environmental Justice Foundation 2020, Fear, hunger and violence: Human rights in Ghanas industrial trawl fleet, p. 11. Available from: https://ejfoundation.org/resources/downloads/EJF_Ghana‐human‐rights‐in‐fisheries_2020_final.pdf [30 October 2020].
332021, ‘Fisherman dies trying to escape abuse aboard Chinese vessels fishing illegally in Somalia’, Environmental Justice Foundation, 26 October. Available From: https://ejfoundation.org/news‐media/fisherman‐dies‐trying‐to‐escape‐abuse‐aboard‐chinese‐vessels‐fishing‐illegally‐in‐somalia. [12 September 2022].
34 Greenpeace & SBMI 2019, Seabound: The Journey to Modern Slavery on the High Seas, Greenpeace. Available from: https://storage.googleapis.com/planet4‐southeastasia‐stateless/2019/12/b68e7b93‐greenpeace‐seabound‐book‐c.pdf. [30 October 2020]; 2019, ‘‘Slavery’ on the Seas: Forced Labor Widespread in Global Fishing Industry’, The Globe Post. Available from: https://theglobepost.com/2019/05/29/fishing‐slavery‐indonesia/. [30 October 2020]; McVeigh, K & Firdaus, F 2020, ‘‘Hold on, brother’: the final days of the doomed crew on the Long Xing 629’, The Guardian, 7 July. Available From: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jul/07/hold‐on‐brother‐final‐days‐of‐doomed‐crew‐on‐chinese‐shark‐finning‐boat. [9 September 2022].
35Jolley, MA & Boyle, D 2022, ‘Cambodia’s Cyber Slaves’, Al Jazeera, 11 August. Available From: https://www.aljazeera.com/features/longform/2022/8/11/meet‐cambodia‐cyber‐slaves. [12 September 2022].
36Lin, L, Wang, Y & Emont, J 2021, ‘Chinese Workers Say They Are Lured Abroad and Exploited for Belt and Road Jobs’, The Wall Street Journal, 27 October. Available From: https://www.wsj.com/articles/chinese‐workers‐say‐they‐are‐lured‐abroad‐and‐exploited‐for‐belt‐and‐road‐jobs‐11635348143. [12 September 2022]; China Labor Watch 2021, Silent Victims of Labor Trafficking: Chinas Belt and Road workers stranded overseas amid Covid‐19 pandemic, pp. 7‐30. Available from: https://3on4k646b3jq16ewqw1ikcel‐wpengine.netdna‐ssl.com/wp‐content/uploads/2021/04/Overseas‐worker‐report‐English.pdf. [12 September 2022].
37Kuo, L & Kommenda, N 2018, ‘What is China’s Belt and Road Initiative?’, The Guardian, 30 July. Available From: https://www.theguardian.com/cities/ng‐interactive/2018/jul/30/what‐china‐belt‐road‐initiative‐silk‐road‐explainer. [12 September 2022]; Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development 2018, Chinas Belt and Road Initiative in the Global Trade, Investment and Finance Landscape, pp. 3‐11. Available from: https://www.oecd.org/finance/Chinas‐Belt‐and‐Road‐Initiative‐in‐the‐global‐trade‐investment‐and‐finance‐landscape.pdf. [12 September 2022].
38China Labor Watch 2021, Silent Victims of Labor Trafficking: Chinas Belt and Road workers stranded overseas amid Covid‐19 pandemic, pp. 7‐30. Available from: https://3on4k646b3jq16ewqw1ikcel‐wpengine.netdna‐ssl.com/wp‐content/uploads/2021/04/Overseas‐worker‐report‐English.pdf. [12 September 2022].
39As above
40Criminal Law of the Peoples Republic of China, 1979 (China) Section 8
41Luong, LTH & Wyndham, C 2022, ‘What We Know about Human Traffickers in Vietnam’, Anti‐Trafficking Review: Special Issue ‐ Traffickers, no. 18, pp. 33‐48. DOI:10.14197/atr.201222183. [13 September 2022]; Sang‐Hun, C 2019, After Fleeing North Korea, Women Get Trapped as Cybersex Slaves in China, The New York Times. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/13/world/asia/north‐korea‐cybersex‐china.html; Thanabouasy, P 2021, ‘Increase in Trafficking of Lao Women to China Amid Covid‐19 Pandemic’, The Laotian Times, 5 July. Available From: https://laotiantimes.com/2021/07/05/increase‐in‐trafficking‐of‐lao‐women‐to‐china‐amid‐covid‐19‐pandemic/. [14 September 2022].
42Moloney, A 2020, ‘Colombia makes arrests in sex trafficking plot that lured women to China’, Thomson Reuters Foundation, 8 September. Available From: https://news.trust.org/item/20200908210357‐adkqg/?utm_campaign=trafficking&utm_medium=newsletter&utm_source=mainListing&utm_content=link3&utm_contentItemId=20200908210357‐adkqg. [9 September 2022].
43Hee‐soon, Y 2019, Sex Slaves: The Prostitution, Cybersex & Forced Marriage of North Korean Women & Girls in China, Korea Future Initiative, p. 20. Available from: https://prostitutionresearch.com/wp‐content/uploads/2019/05/Trafficking‐North‐Korean‐women‐to‐China2019.pdf. [13 September 2022].
44Sang‐Hun, C 2019, After Fleeing North Korea, Women Get Trapped as Cybersex Slaves in China, The New York Times. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/13/world/asia/north‐korea‐cybersex‐china.html.
45Hee‐soon, Y 2019, Sex Slaves: The Prostitution, Cybersex & Forced Marriage of North Korean Women & Girls in China, Korea Future Initiative, p. 20. Available from: https://prostitutionresearch.com/wp‐content/uploads/2019/05/Trafficking‐North‐Korean‐women‐to‐China2019.pdf. [13 September 2022].
46Rozario, RR 2021, ‘Covid‐19 fuels trafficking of Lao women to China’, UCA News, 9 July. Available From: https://www.ucanews.com/news/covid‐19‐fuels‐trafficking‐of‐lao‐women‐to‐china/93213. [14 September 2022].
47Blue Dragon Children’s Foundation 2021, What Makes People Vulnerable to Human Trafficking, pp. 10‐11. Available from: https://www.bluedragon.org/wp‐content/uploads/2021/11/What‐makes‐victims‐vulnerable‐to‐TIP‐Nov‐9‐2021.pdf. [14 September 2022].
48Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report: China Country Narrative, United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2022‐trafficking‐in‐persons‐report/china/. [12 September 2022].
49Wang, Q 2019, ‘Missing Women, Gender Imbalance and Sex Ratio at Birth: Why the One‐Child Policy Matters’, SSRN, pp. 1 – 52. Available from: https:// ssrn.com/abstract=3430994 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3430994 [17 August 2020]; Bulte, E, Heerink, N & Zhang, X 2010, ‘China’s One‐Child Policy and ‘the Mystery of Missing Women’: Ethnic Minorities and Male‐Biased Sex Ratios’, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, vol. 73, no. 1, pp. 21. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468‐ 0084.2010.00601.x. [10 March 2020]; Jiang, Q, Li, Y & Sanchez‐Barricarte, J 2009, Trafficking of women from neighboring countries into China for marriage within the context of gender imbalance, IUAES World Congress 2013: Evolving humanity, emerging worlds. Available from: https://nomadit. co.uk/conference/iuaes2013/paper/8111. [12 March 2020].
50Human Rights Watch 2019, Give Us a Baby and Well Let You Go: Trafficking of Kachin Brides from Myanmar to China, Human Rights Watch, p. 1. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/03/21/give‐us‐baby‐and‐well‐let‐you‐go/trafficking‐kachin‐brides‐myanmar‐china. [20 September 2020]; Beech, H 2019, ‘Teenage Brides Trafficked to China Reveal Ordeal: ‘Ma, I’ve Been Sold’’, The New York Times, 17 August. Available From: https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/17/world/asia/china‐bride‐trafficking.html. [24 March 2023].
51Blue Dragon Children’s Foundation 2021, What Makes People Vulnerable to Human Trafficking, pp. 10‐11. Available from: https://www.bluedragon.org/wp‐content/uploads/2021/11/What‐makes‐victims‐vulnerable‐to‐TIP‐Nov‐9‐2021.pdf. [14 September 2022].
522019, ‘Hundreds of Pakistani girls sold as brides to Chinese men, investigation finds’, ABC News, 5 December. Available From: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019‐12‐05/investigators‐reveal‐hundreds‐of‐pakistani‐women‐sold‐to‐china/11767898. [9 September 2022].
532021, ‘Chinese Police Return Three Female Trafficking Victims to Laos’, Radio Free Asia, 3 April. Available From: https://www.rfa.org/english/news/laos/trafficking‐03042021175901.html. [9 September 2022]; 2021, ‘COVID‐19 Drives New Surge in Trafficking of Women From Laos to China’, Radio Free Asia, 3 July. Available From: https://www.rfa.org/english/news/laos/surge‐07032021082612.html. [29 September 2022]; Thanabouasy, P 2021, ‘Lao Authorities and Women’s Union Assist Trafficking Victims’, The Laotian Times, 24 June. Available From: https://laotiantimes.com/2021/06/24/lao‐authorities‐and‐womens‐union‐assist‐trafficking‐victims/. [29 September 2022].
54Blomberg, M 2020, ‘Pandemic seen fuelling Cambodian ‘bride trafficking’ to China’, Reuters, 11 December. Available From: https://www.reuters.com/article/cambodia‐china‐trafficking/pandemic‐seen‐fuelling‐cambodian‐bride‐trafficking‐to‐china‐idUSL8N2IQ2MF. [12 September 2022]; Chhun, V, Bird, L & Hoang, T 2022, Cambodias Trafficked Brides: The escalating phenomenon of forced marriage in China, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime. Available from: https://globalinitiative.net/wp‐content/uploads/2022/05/GITOC‐RF‐Cambodia‐Trafficking.pdf. [13 September 2022].
5555 Blue Dragon Children’s Foundation 2021, What Makes People Vulnerable to Human Trafficking, pp. 10‐11. Available from: https://www.bluedragon.org/wp‐content/uploads/2021/11/What‐makes‐victims‐vulnerable‐to‐TIP‐Nov‐9‐2021.pdf. [14 September 2022]; Hung, AH‐C 2021, ‘Tortured between Two Hells: A Qualitative Analysis of the Collective Social Normalization of the Trafficking of Brides from Myanmar to China’, Journal of Human Trafficking, pp. 1‐13. DOI:10.1080/23322705.2021.1934310. [14 September 2022]; Human Rights Watch 2019, Give Us a Baby and Well Let You Go: Trafficking of Kachin Brides from Myanmar to China, Human Rights Watch, p. 1. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/03/21/give‐us‐baby‐and‐well‐let‐you‐go/trafficking‐kachin‐brides‐myanmar‐china. [20 September 2020].
56Blue Dragon Children’s Foundation 2021, What Makes People Vulnerable to Human Trafficking, pp. 10‐11. Available from: https://www.bluedragon.org/wp‐content/uploads/2021/11/What‐makes‐victims‐vulnerable‐to‐TIP‐Nov‐9‐2021.pdf. [14 September 2022]; Hee‐soon, Y 2019, Sex Slaves: The Prostitution, Cybersex & Forced Marriage of North Korean Women & Girls in China, Korea Future Initiative, p. 20. Available from: https://prostitutionresearch.com/wp‐content/uploads/2019/05/Trafficking‐North‐Korean‐women‐to‐China2019.pdf. [13 September 2022]; Gannon, K 2019, ‘Pakistani police target traffickers selling brides to China’, Associated Press, 17 June. Available From: https://apnews.com/article/religion‐ap‐top‐news‐pakistan‐international‐news‐marriage‐ad6b5fb667ca449d8cadc05bb2bc0a41. [13 September 2022].
57Blue Dragon Children’s Foundation 2021, What Makes People Vulnerable to Human Trafficking, pp. 10‐11. Available from: https://www.bluedragon.org/wp‐content/uploads/2021/11/What‐makes‐victims‐vulnerable‐to‐TIP‐Nov‐9‐2021.pdf. [14 September 2022]; Tran, P 2019, ‘Women, children and babies: human trafficking to China is on the rise’, PIME Asia News, 7 November. Available From: https://www.asianews.it/news‐en/Women,‐children‐and‐babies:‐human‐trafficking‐to‐China‐is‐on‐the‐rise‐47513.html. [29 September 2022].
582017, ‘Xinjiang Authorities Push Uyghurs to Marry Han Chinese’, Radio Free Asia. Available From: https://www.rfa.org/english/news/special/uyghur‐oppression/ChenPolicy2.html. [30 September 2022]; 2020, ‘Another Form of Torture for the Uyghurs: Forced to Marry Han Chinese’, Campaign for Uyghurs, 4 April. Available From: https://campaignforuyghurs.org/another‐form‐of‐torture‐for‐the‐uyghurs‐forced‐to‐marry‐han‐chinese/. [30 September 2022].
59Kashgarian, A 2020, ‘China Video Ad Calls for 100 Uighur Women to ‘Urgently’ Marry Han Men’, VOA news, 21 August. Available From: https://www.voanews.com/a/east‐asia‐pacific_voa‐news‐china_china‐video‐ad‐calls‐100‐uighur‐women‐urgently‐marry‐han‐men/6194806.html. [30 September 2022].
60Mistreanu, S 2021, ‘Uyghur Women Are China’s Victims ‐ and Resistance’, Foreign Policy, 12 March. Available From: https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/03/12/uyghur‐women‐are‐chinas‐victims‐and‐resistance/. [30 September 2022].
61Nice, G, Elliott, M, Khoo, A, Paulose, R, Sadr, S, Vetch, N & Waldron, A 2020, The Independent Tribunal into Forced Organ Harvesting from Prisoners of Conscience in China: Judgement, China Tribunal. Available from: https://chinatribunal.com/wp‐content/uploads/2020/03/ChinaTribunal_JUDGMENT_1stMarch_2020.pdf., p. 50.
62As above , pp. 55 & 91.
63As above , p. 21.
64Human Rights Watch 2018, China: Big Data Fuels Crackdown in Minority Region, Human Rights Watch. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/02/26/china‐big‐data‐fuels‐crackdown‐minority‐region [12 August 2020].
65Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act of 2020. Available from: https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS‐116s3744enr/pdf/BILLS‐116s3744enr.pdf [12 August 2020].
66The Associated Press 2020, ‘China cuts Uighur births with IUDs, abortion, sterilization’, The Associated Press. Available from: https://apnews.com/269b3de1af34e17c1941a514f78d764c [12 August 2020]; Wong, E 2009, ‘Clashes in China Shed Light on Ethnic Divide’, The New York Times. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/08/world/asia/08china.html [12 August 2020].
67The Associated Press 2020, ‘China cuts Uighur births with IUDs, abortion, sterilization’, The Associated Press. Available from: https://apnews.com/269b3de1af34e17c1941a514f78d764c [12 August 2020].
68The United States and the Netherlands have ruled China’s actions amount to genocide. The Canadian House of Commons; Belgian Foreign Relations Committee; Czech Senate; and UK Parliament have recognised China’s actions as genocide. Uyghur Human Rights Project 2022, Responses. Available from: https://uhrp.org/responses/. [1 April 2022]; Reuters 2021, ‘Dutch parliament: China’s treatment of Uighurs is genocide’, Reuters, 26 February. Available From: https://news.trust.org/item/20210225153826‐t2se4/?utm_campaign=trafficking&utm_medium=newsletter&utm_source=secondListing&utm_content=link5&utm_contentItemId=20210225153826‐t2se4. [1 August 2022]; Reuters 2021, ‘U.S. says no change in its genocide determination for China’s Xinjiang’, Reuters, 10 March. Available From: https://www.reuters.com/article/us‐china‐usa‐xinjiang‐idUSKBN2B12LG. [1 August 2022].
692020, ‘Another Form of Torture for the Uyghurs: Forced to Marry Han Chinese’, Campaign for Uyghurs, 4 April. Available From: https://campaignforuyghurs.org/another‐form‐of‐torture‐for‐the‐uyghurs‐forced‐to‐marry‐han‐chinese/. [30 September 2022]; Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights 2022, OHCHR Assessment of human rights concerns in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, Peoples Republic of China, United Nations. Available from: https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/countries/2022‐08‐31/22‐08‐31‐final‐assesment.pdf. [2 September 2022].
70 Human Rights Watch 2019, Chinas Algorithms of Repression: Reverse Engineering a Xinjiang Police Mass Surveillance App, Human Rights Watch. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/05/01/chinas‐algorithms‐repression/reverse‐engineering‐xinjiang‐police‐mass‐surveillance. p. 1.
71As above , p. 3.
72Lehr, A & Bechrakis, M 2019, Connecting the Dots in Xinjiang Forced Labor, Forced Assimilation, and Western Supply Chains, Center for Strategic and International Studies. Available from: https://csis‐website‐prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs‐public/publication/Lehr_ConnectingDotsXinjiang_interior_v3_FULL_WEB.pdf. [14 December 2021].
73Human Rights Watch 2019, ‘China: Xinjiang Children Separated from Families’, Human Rights Watch, 15 September. Available From: https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/09/15/china‐xinjiang‐children‐separated‐families. [3 August 2022].
74Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) 1989, (resolution 44/25), 20 November 1989, art 9.
75Field sources
76Chan, KW & Yang, X 2020, ‘Internal Migration and Development: A Perspective from China’, in T Bastia & R Skeldon (eds), Routledge Handbook of Migration and Development, pp. 567‐584. Routledge. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/washington/detail.action?docID=6128171. [30 September 2022].
77Lee, CK 2016, ‘Precarization or Empowerment: Reflections on Recent Labor Unrest in China, ‘The Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 75, no. 2, p. 320. Available from: http://www.sociology.ucla.edu/sites/default/files/u281/jas_2016_752.pdf. [7 August 2017]; Chan, KW 2021, Internal Migration in China: Integrating Migration with Urbanization Policies and Hukou Reform, Global Knowledge Partnership on Migration and Development, p. 2. Available from: https://www.knomad.org/sites/default/files/2022‐02/Policy%20Brief%2016_Internal%20Migration%20in%20China‐Integrating%20Migration%20with%20Urbanization%20Policies%20and%20Hukou%20Reform‐Nov_21.pdf. [30 September 2022].
78Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report: China Country Narrative, United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2022‐trafficking‐in‐persons‐report/china/. [12 September 2022].
79Friedman, E 2017, Made in China: A Quarterly on Chinese Labour, Civil Society, and Rights, vol. 2, no. 1, p. 15. Available from: http://www.chinoiresie.info/PDF/MIC_2017_1.pdf. [31 July 2017]; Field source; Chan, KW 2021, Internal Migration in China: Integrating Migration with Urbanization Policies and Hukou Reform, Global Knowledge Partnership on Migration and Development, p. 2. Available from: https://www.knomad.org/sites/default/files/2022‐02/Policy%20Brief%2016_Internal%20Migration%20in%20China‐Integrating%20Migration%20with%20Urbanization%20Policies%20and%20Hukou%20Reform‐Nov_21.pdf. [30 September 2022]; Che, L, Du, H & Chan, KW 2020, ‘Unequal pain: a sketch of the impact of the Covid‐19 pandemic on migrants’ employment in China’, Eurasian Geography and Economics, vol. 61, no. 4‐5, pp. 448‐463. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/15387216.2020.1791726. [30 September 2022].
80Chan, KW 2021, Internal Migration in China: Integrating Migration with Urbanization Policies and Hukou Reform, Global Knowledge Partnership on Migration and Development, p. 2. Available from: https://www.knomad.org/sites/default/files/2022‐02/Policy%20Brief%2016_Internal%20Migration%20in%20China‐Integrating%20Migration%20with%20Urbanization%20Policies%20and%20Hukou%20Reform‐Nov_21.pdf. [30 September 2022].
81Chan, KW & Yang, X 2020, ‘Internal Migration and Development: A Perspective from China’, in T Bastia & R Skeldon (eds), Routledge Handbook of Migration and Development, pp. 567‐584. Routledge. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/washington/detail.action?docID=6128171. [30 September 2022].
82Li, B, Shang, X, Cui, Y & Blaxland, M 2020, Migration, urbanisation, climate change and children in China—issues from a child rights perspective, Social Policy Research Centre, University of New South Wales, p. 29. Available from: DOI:10.26190/5ea7aa6432d2c. [30 September 2022]; Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report: China Country Narrative, United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2022‐trafficking‐in‐persons‐report/china/. [12 September 2022].
83Kim, E, Yun, M, Park, M & Williams, H 2009, ‘Cross border North Korean Women Trafficking and Victimization between North Korea and China: An ethnographic Study, ‘International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, vol. 37, no. 4, p. 162. Available from: ScienceDirect. [1 June 2017]; UN‐ACT 2016, Human Trafficking Vulnerabilities in Asia: A Study on Forced Marriage between China and Cambodia, UN‐ACT, p. 1. Available from: http://un‐act.org/wp‐content/uploads/2016/08/Final_UN‐ACT_Forced_Marriage_Report.pdf. [15 June 2017].
84See for example: Beech, H 2019, ‘Teenage Brides Trafficked to China Reveal Ordeal: ‘Ma, I’ve Been Sold’’, The New York Times, 17 August. Available From: https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/17/world/asia/china‐bride‐trafficking.html. [24 March 2023].
85EU‐China Dialogue on Migration and Mobility Support Project 2018, Seminar for facilitating network building among anti‐trafficking criminal investigation experts, International Organisation for Migration. Available from: https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/country/docs/china/IOM‐China‐N9‐A3‐1‐Seminar‐for‐Facilitating‐Network‐Building‐among‐Anti‐trafficking‐Criminal‐Investigation‐Experts.pdf. [13 May 2021].
86Field sources
87The police emergency hotline (110) and children’s rights hotline (12355) run by the Communist Youth League of China appear to be available to reports trafficking. Qiao, L 2019, ‘Public concerned over sexual assault against kids in countryside’, Global Times (Chinese State media), 12 August. Available From: https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/1161193.shtml. [6 May 2021]; Overseas Security Advisory Council 2020, China 2020 Crime & Safety Report: Beijing, United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.osac.gov/Country/China/Content/Detail/Report/cee2d1f4‐6ea3‐4d40‐81bd‐18f3d04d6949. [6 May 2021].
88The All‐China Federation of Trade Unions hotline (12351) and Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security hotline (12333) are available to report labour grievances. 2018, ‘In the face of government officials breaking laws and disciplines, please complain and report immediately! (collection)’, Sohu, 8 October. Available From: https://www.sohu.com/a/258306760_774804. [6 May 2021]; 2019, ‘How Guangdong missed the chance for genuine workplace collective bargaining’, China Labour Bulletin, 15 October. Available From: https://www.clb.org.hk/content/how‐guangdong‐missed‐chance‐genuine‐workplace‐collective‐bargaining. [6 May 2021]; Dorsey & Whitney LLP 2020, ‘Key Things Employers in China Should Know Regarding Reopening Amid COVID‐19 (II)’, 11 March. Available From: https://www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/key‐things‐employers‐in‐china‐should‐55174/. [6 May 2021].
89Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 2019, DFAT Country Information Report: Peoples Republic of China, Government of Australia, pp. 56‐57. Available from: https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/country‐information‐report‐china.pdf. [13 May 2021]; Home Office 2021, Country Policy and Information Note, China: Modern slavery, Government of the United Kingdom, p. 10. Available from: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/951682/China_‐_Modern_slavery‐_CPIN_‐_v1.0_January_2021.pdf. [13 May 2021].
90Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 2019, DFAT Country Information Report: Peoples Republic of China, Government of Australia, p. 72. Available from: https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/country‐information‐report‐china.pdf. [13 May 2021].
91Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report: China Country Narrative, United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2022‐trafficking‐in‐persons‐report/china/. [12 September 2022].
92Asian Legal Information Institute, Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China 1997. Available from: http://www.asianlii.org/cn/legis/cen/laws/clotproc361/. [7 November 2017].
93Criminal Law of the Peoples Republic of China, 1979 (amended 2015) (China) art 244.
94Criminal Law of the Peoples Republic of China, 1979 (amended 2015) (China) art 257.
95Human Rights Watch 2019, Give Us a Baby and Well Let You Go: Trafficking of Kachin Brides from Myanmar to China, Human Rights Watch. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/03/21/give‐us‐baby‐and‐well‐let‐you‐go/trafficking‐kachin‐brides‐myanmar‐china. [20 September 2020].
96Field sources
97General Office of the State Council 2021, Chinas Action Plan Against Human Trafficking (2021‐2030), China Law Translate. Available from: https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/countertraffickingplan2021thr2030/. [10 August 2022].
98Government of the People’s Republic of China 2020, Ninth periodic report submitted by China under article 18 of the Convention, due in 2018, Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, p. 15. Available from: https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CEDAW%2fC%2fCHN%2f9&Lang=en. [26 July 2021].
99For example: 2018, ‘Thailand, China sign anti‐human trafficking deal’, Nationa News Bureau of Thailand, 2 November. Available From: https://thainews.prd.go.th/en/news/detail/WNSOC6111020010051. [24 March 2023].
100Field source; Hoffman, R 2017, New Grading System for Labor Protection in China, Ecovis Beijing, 13 January. Available from: http://www.ecovis‐beijing.com/en/blog‐en/articles/792‐new‐grading‐system‐for‐labor‐protection‐in‐china. [29 September 2017].
101Labour Act, 1994 (China)
102Labour Act, 1994 (China); Freedom House 2021, Freedom in the World 2021: China. Available from: https://freedomhouse.org/country/china/freedom‐world/2021. [20 August 2021]; International Trade Union Confederation 2013, Survey of Violations of Trade Union Rights ‐ China. Available from: https://survey.ituc‐csi.org/China.html?lang=en#tabs‐2. [20 August 2021].
103Son, H 2022, ‘North Korea resumes coal shipments to China in violation of sanctions’, Radio Free Asia, 27 July. Available From: https://www.rfa.org/english/news/korea/china_coal‐07272022190512.html. [11 October 2022]; United Nations Security Council 2019, Letter dated 21 February 2019 from the Panel of Experts established pursuant to resolution 1874 (2009) addressed to the President of the Security Council S/2019/171*. Available from: https://documents‐dds‐ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N19/028/82/PDF/N1902882.pdf?OpenElement. [11 October 2022].
104Citizens’ Alliance for North Korean Human Rights 2021, Blood Coal Export from North Korea. Available from: https://www.nkhr.or.kr/wp‐content/uploads/2021/04/Blood‐Coal‐Export‐from‐North‐Korea.‐Pyramid‐scheme‐of‐earnings‐maintaining‐structures‐of‐power.pdf. [3 October 2022]; Walk Free & Leiden Asia Centre 2018, Pervasive, Punitive, and Predetermined: Understanding Modern Slavery in North Korea. Available from: https://www.walkfree.org/resources/. [13 January 2022].
105United Nations Security Council 2017, Resolution 2371 S/RES/2371 (2017). Available from: https://documents‐dds‐ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N17/246/68/PDF/N1724668.pdf?OpenElement. [11 October 2022].