Global Slavery Index / COuntry Study

Modern slavery in United Arab Emirates

Estimated number living in modern slavery:

132,000 (13.4

per thousand)

Vulnerability:

40

/100

Government response rating:

50

/100

Population:

9,890,000

GDP per capita (PPP):

66,766

(current international $)

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Overview

The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has the second highest prevalence in the Arab States region, and the seventh highest prevalence in the Global Slavery Index. Migrant workers in the UAE are particularly vulnerable under the kafala (sponsorship) system, a restrictive work permit system that ties migrant workers to their employer.1 The system embeds a steep power imbalance by granting employers control over their employees’ lives.2 However, the UAE is among countries taking the most action to address modern slavery in comparison to other countries in the region. Since the 2018 Global Slavery Index, the government has implemented reforms to increase labour protections and remove elements of the kafala system,3 although these reforms have been insufficient to dismantle the system entirely. Opportunities for further action include strengthening protections for migrant workers, addressing forced and child marriage, and eradicating modern slavery from the economy.

Prevalence

The 2023 Global Slavery Index estimates that on any given day in 2021, there were 132,000 individuals living in modern slavery in the UAE. This equates to a prevalence of 13.4 people in modern slavery for every thousand people in the country. The UAE has the second highest prevalence of people in modern slavery of 11 countries in the Arab States region, and the seventh highest prevalence out of 160 countries globally.

Forced labour

Forced labour exploitation

The kafala system is a set of laws and policies that delegate responsibility for migrant workers to employers, including control over their ability to reside in, work, and exit the country.4 Migrant workers cannot access legal protections or leave their employment without facing legal and financial consequences.5 The system exacerbates the employer-worker power imbalance and prevents migrant workers from reporting abuse or exploitation.6

Migrant workers face risks of forced labour particularly in the construction, domestic work, and service industries under the kafala system.7 Allegations of forced labour occurred in the construction of, and during, the Dubai Expo 2020, with indications that workers from Bangladesh, India, Kenya, Nepal, and Pakistan had their passports confiscated, wages withheld, were forced to work long hours, and lived in poor conditions.8 There is evidence that migrant domestic workers are forced to work in exploitative conditions, without rest and for limited pay,9 and face sexual abuse by their employers.10 Migrant women are promised decent work and pay in the UAE by recruitment agents, but are then “sold” and forced into domestic work.11

For the first time since 2016, the UAE government identified one person in forced labour in 2021.12 However, no further information on this case was reported. Forced begging also occurs in the UAE.13 In 2021, three Egyptian women were arrested for travelling to UAE on multiple occasions to force children to beg in Dubai.14

Forced commercial sexual exploitation of adults and children

Women and children from Central Asia, South and Southeast and West Asia, Africa, and Eastern Europe have been trafficked into forced sexual exploitation in the UAE.15 Although the government did not report official statistics of forced sexual exploitation or any other form of modern slavery, in 2021, 18 of the 23 convicted traffickers were convicted for trafficking for sexual exploitation.16

Migrant women and girls deceived by criminals promising employment opportunities are forced into sex work in the UAE. For example, in 2021, UAE courts convicted six offenders for trafficking a teenage girl. The traffickers forged a false passport for the teenager, and, on her arrival, forced her into domestic work and commercial sexual exploitation.17 They received jail sentences between six months and 10 years. Similar cases emerged among Thai men and women who were promised jobs as massage therapists in the UAE, only to be forced into sex work on arrival.18

Forced marriage

While there are no current national estimates of the prevalence of forced and child marriage in the UAE,19 the Forced Marriage Unit in the United Kingdom registered 14 cases of British nationals who were forced into marriage in the UAE since 2018. Seven individuals were identified in 2020 alone, despite COVID-19 travel restrictions being in place.20 Unregistered forced and child marriages are also of concern.21

Vulnerability

Governance issues Lack of basic needs Inequality Disenfranchised groups Effects of conflict Overall weighted average
57/100 27/100 22/100 68/100 6/100 40/100

While the UAE has relatively low vulnerability to modern slavery in comparison to other countries in the Arab States, modern slavery persists as a result of systemic discrimination against migrants and minority groups. The UAE is home to eight million migrant workers,22 largely from Africa, Asia, and other countries in the Arab States.23

Under the kafala system, employers and recruiters threaten migrant workers with the potential loss of their visa to prevent them reporting poor working conditions.24 Workers who do leave risk being reported for the crime of absconding,25 leaving them undocumented and vulnerable to arrest, detention, and deportation. In 2020, the government launched an initiative to encourage employers to report absconded domestic workers to authorities.26 There are concerns that this policy further exacerbates the vulnerability of domestic workers trying to leave exploitative or abusive situations and increases the risk of punishing potential trafficking victims.27

Women, particularly migrant women, are vulnerable to exploitation and gender-based violence in the UAE.28 In 2020, the majority of people seeking help for domestic violence, human trafficking, and other abuses were migrant women.29 Emirati women are vulnerable to forced marriage and abuse under male guardianship laws, which require female adults to obtain permission from a male guardian to consent to their marriage30 unless a judge otherwise approves it.31 This framework enables male guardians to control the marriage choices of women and potentially force them into unwanted marriages.32 Further, there are no provisions in Emirati legislation allowing women to annul a forced marriage.33

Vulnerability to modern slavery also increased in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic. A lack of employment opportunities in the UAE pushed many migrant workers to return to their home countries, in some cases without having received their owed wages.34 In March 2020, the UAE government passed a resolution which allowed employers to reduce the wages of migrant workers, leaving migrants vulnerable to wage theft and other exploitative practices.35 Migrants who worked on projects at the Expo 2020 Dubai reported that non-payment of wages and salary reductions became a widespread issue following the onset of the pandemic. Crowded accommodation also meant that migrant workers were at high risk of contracting COVID-19.36

Government response

Survivors identified and supported Criminal justice mechanisms National and regional level coordination Risk factors are addressed Government and business supply chains Total
59/100 42/100 75/100 74/100 0/100 50/100

The UAE is among countries taking the most action to respond to modern slavery in the Arab States region, but has an average response in comparison to the rest of the world. When correlated against GDP PPP per capita, the UAE has taken limited action to address modern slavery despite having larger resources at its disposal. Further, the government has not made efforts to eradicate modern slavery from government and business supply chains.

The government largely focuses its response on forced sexual exploitation,37 and most support services are for female survivors of modern slavery.38 The government publicises human trafficking hotlines in awareness campaigns, including posting information on human trafficking at airport terminals.39 Further, apart from Saudi Arabia, the UAE is the only other country in the Arab States region to provide regular training for frontline responders to identify and respond to modern slavery cases.40 Despite significant evidence of forced labour, there are no support services for males or for survivors of forced labour who are not victims of human trafficking.41

Gaps in protections for modern slavery crimes exist in UAE legislation. Forced marriage is not criminalised and significant exceptions undermine the minimum age of marriage set at 18 years.42 In effect, Emirati girls can marry if they have reached “maturity” earlier than the age of 18, and if a judge consents to the marriage.43 Although the UAE is one of three countries in the region to have fully criminalised forced labour,44 in practice, forced labour allegations are often considered regulatory violations for which businesses receive fines or lose their licences instead of imprisonment.45 Further, while Article 11 of the anti-trafficking law does stipulate that survivors of exploitation should not be liable for criminal conduct that occurred while under the control of traffickers, there are exceptions to this provision, including cases where migrants have violated their work contract.46

Although recent reforms to UAE labour laws prohibit asking migrant workers for recruitment fees47 and allow workers to change workplaces without the need for authorisation from their employer,48 many migrant workers are still vulnerable to being charged exorbitant recruitment fees, increasing their risk of debt bondage.49 Workers in the UAE must complete their contract or provide advance notice to avoid an employment ban, and may be required to compensate their employer if they change jobs.50 Further, there is a lack of punishment for sponsors who confiscate employees’ passports and withhold their wages, leaving migrant workers vulnerable to forced labour.51 While the government passed a new law on domestic workers in 2022,52 including prohibitions on wage deductions, domestic workers continue to be excluded from key labour protections, such as a minimum wage.53

The UAE government took the most action to coordinate the response to modern slavery at the national and regional levels compared to any other country in the Arab States region. The National Committee to Combat Human Trafficking (NCCHT), comprised of government and NGO representatives, meets regularly to coordinate the UAE’s response.54 In July 2020, the NCCHT reviewed its implementation of the anti-trafficking program and the impact of COVID-19 on human rights issues in the UAE. The findings of the report included recommendations around labour rights and protections in the face of increased risk of exploitation due to the impacts of the pandemic.55 The NCCHT also drives the implementation of the country’s anti-trafficking national action plan56 and produces annual reports on combatting trafficking in the UAE.57

Recommendations

Survivors identified and supported

  • Address gaps in support services available for people who have experienced modern slavery, ensuring all groups including migrant workers, survivors of forced labour, and men and boys can access specialised services.

Criminal justice mechanisms 

  • Ensure that survivors of exploitation are not punished or detained for crimes committed while under the control of criminals.

  • Introduce a suite of legal protections to tackle forced marriage, including by criminalising all forms of modern slavery in line with international law, eliminating the need of a guardian to sign marriage certificates on behalf of Emirati bides, and raising the minimum age of marriage to 18 with no exceptions.

National and regional level coordination 

  • Allocate dedicated funds to the full implementation of the national action plan on human trafficking.

Risk factors are addresses

  • Dismantle kafala by expanding coverage of national labour laws to include domestic workers and ensure migrant workers can freely enter, reside, and exit the country, and leave or transfer jobs without employer consent. Abolish provisions in the law that criminalise absconding and enforce measures to discourage employers from filing false allegations against workers.

    • Address underlying discriminatory and xenophobic attitudes towards migrant workers that increase their vulnerability to modern slavery across all sectors.

    • Tackle underlying gender inequality by affording women equal rights in matters of divorce, inheritance, citizenship, and employment.

Government and business supply chains

  • Enact legislation to tackle modern slavery in supply chains, including mandatory human rights due diligence.

Endnotes

1Motaparthy, P 2015, ‘Understanding Kafala: An archaic law at cross purposes with modern development’, Migrant‐Rights.Org, 11 March. Available from: https://www.migrant-rights.org/2015/03/understanding-kafala-an-archaic-law-at-cross-purposes-with-modern-development/. [13 February 2022]; Begum, R 2020, ‘What Will it Take for Saudi Arabia to Abolish Abusive Sponsorship System?’, Human Rights Watch, 30 October. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/10/30/what-will-it-take-saudi-arabia-abolish-abusive-sponsorship-system. [13 February 2022].
2Human Rights Watch 2020, World Country Report: United Arab Emirates, Human Rights Watch. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2020/country-chapters/united-arab-emirates#d91ede. [22 January 2021].Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report‐ United Arab Emirates country narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 564‐569. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/20221020-2022-TIP-Report.pdf. [15 May 2023].
3Qadri, M. 2020, The UAE’s Kafala System: Harmless or Human Trafficking? In Page, M. T. and Vittori, J. (eds), Dubais role in facilitating corruption and global illicit financial flows. Available from: https://carnegieendowment.org/2020/07/07/uae-s-kafala-system-harmless-or-human-trafficking-pub-82188. [28 January 2021].
4Motaparthy, P 2015, ‘Understanding Kafala: An archaic law at cross purposes with modern development’, Migrant‐Rights.Org, 11 March. Available from: https://www.migrant-rights.org/2015/03/understanding-kafala-an-archaic-law-at-cross-purposes-with-modern-development/. [13 February 2022]; Begum, R 2020, ‘What Will it Take for Saudi Arabia to Abolish Abusive Sponsorship System?’, Human Rights Watch, 30 October. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/10/30/what-will-it-take-saudi-arabia-abolish-abusive-sponsorship-system. [13 February 2022].
5Qadri M 2020, Dubais Role in Facilitating Corruption and Global Illicit Financial Flows, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, pp. 79‐83. Available from: https://carnegieendowment.org/files/PageVittori_DubaiCorruption_final.pdf. [3 May 2023].
6Human Rights Watch 2020, World Country Report: United Arab Emirates, Human Rights Watch. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2020/country-chapters/united-arab-emirates#d91ede. [22 January 2021]. Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report‐ United Arab Emirates country narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 564‐569. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/20221020-2022-TIP-Report.pdf. [15 May 2023].
7Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2020, Trafficking in Persons Report: United Arab Emirates Country Narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 340‐343. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/2020-TIP-Report-Complete-062420-FINAL.pdf. [20 January 2021].
8Equidem 2022, Exposed. Discrimination and forced labour practices at Expo 2020 Dubai. Available from: https://www.equidem.org/reports/exposed. [2 May 2023], Aljazeera 2022, ‘New report highlights labour rights abuses at Dubai’s Expo 2020’, Aljazeera, 2 February 2022. Available From: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/2/new-report-highlights-labour-rights-abuses-at-dubais-expo-2020. [2 May 2022], Pattison, P 2022, ‘Allegations of worker exploitation at “world’s greatest show” in Dubai’, The Guardian, 3 February 2022. Available From: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/feb/02/allegations-of-worker-exploitation-at-worlds-greatest-show-expo-2020-dubai. [2 May 2023].
9Admin, A 2019, ‘Migrants and Domestic Workers Abuse’, Americans for Democracy & Human Rights in Bahrain UAE, 31 May 2019. Available From: https://www.adhrb.org/2019/05/uae-migrant-and-domestic-workers-abuse/. [4 May 2023].
10Bureau of Democracy Human Rights and Labour 2023, United Arab Emirates 2022 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, U.S. Department of State, pp. 28‐29, 40. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/united-arab-emirates/. [7 May 2023], Begum, R 2020, ‘Domestic Workers in Middle East Risk Abuse Amid COVID‐19 Crisis’, Aljazeera, 4 April 2020. Available From: https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/4/4/domestic-workers-in-middle-east-risk-abuse-amid-covid-19-crisis/. [7 May 2023]. Acharya, P 2021, ‘Nepali women trafficked to UAE, sexually abused and exploited’, Migrant‐Rights.Org, 14 October. Available From: https://www.migrant-rights.org/2021/10/nepali-women-trafficked-to-uae-sexually-abused-and-exploited/ [15 May 2023].
11Hassan, A & Rehbar, Q 2022, ‘Kashmiri women lured to UAE describe labor trafficking ‘hellholes’’, Nikkei Asia, 15 May. Available From: https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/Kashmiri-women-lured-to-UAE-describe-labor-trafficking-hellholes. [16 May 2023].
12Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report‐ United Arab Emirates country narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 564‐569. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/20221020-2022-TIP-Report.pdf. [15 May 2023].
13As above
14Yaseen, M 2021, ‘Three mothers of child beggars put behind bars in Dubai’, 24 May 2021. Available From: https://www.gulftoday.ae/news/2021/05/24/three-mothers-of-child-beggars-put-behind-bars-in-dubai. [4 May 2023], Ali Al Shouk 2021, ‘Three mums arrested for using their children to beg on Dubai streets’, Gulf News, 24 May 2021. Available From: https://gulfnews.com/uae/crime/three-mums-arrested-for-using-their-children-to-beg-on-dubai-streets-1.79427034#. [4 May 2023].
15Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persos Report: United Arab Emirates Country Narrative, pp. 564‐569. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/20221020-2022-TIP-Report.pdf. [1 May 2022], United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2022, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2022. Country profiles, North Africa and the Middle East, pp. 47‐49. Available from: https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/2022/North_Africa_and_the_Middle_East.pdf. [3 May 2023], Dubai Foundation for Women and Children 2020, Annual Infographic Report 2020, pp. 8‐13. Available from: https://www.dfwac.ae/sites/default/files/Annual-Infographic-Report-2020_English.pdf. [5 May 2023], Dubai Foundation for Women and Children 2019, Annual Infographic Report 2019, pp. 8‐14. Available from: https://www.dfwac.ae/sites/default/files/Annual-Infographic-Report-English-final-2019.pdf. [5 May 2023].
16Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report‐ United Arab Emirates country narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 564‐569. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/20221020-2022-TIP-Report.pdf. [15 May 2023].
17Yaseen, M 2021, ‘Jail terms of 6 human trafficking convicts increased’, Gulf Today, 15 August. Available from: https://www.gulftoday.ae/news/2021/08/15/jail-terms-of-6-human-trafficking-convicts-increased [20 April 2023].
182021, ‘Labour ministry answers SOS from sex‐trafficked Thai woman in Dubai’, The Nation Thailand, 21 September. Available From: https://www.nationthailand.com/in‐focus/40006454. [16 May 2023], as above, 2022, ‘Police arrest 3 for ‘luring Thai man to Dubai to sell sex’’, The Nation Thailand, 8 December. Available From: https://www.nationthailand.com/thailand/general/40022897. [16 May 2023].
19Girls Not Brides 2021, United Arab Emirates, Girls Not Brides. Available from: https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/united-arab-emirates/. [20 January 2021].
20Lab, UoNR 2022, The impact of Covid‐19 and Covid‐related restrictions on forced marriage. Data Report, pp. 28‐40. Available from: https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/research/beacons-of-excellence/rights-lab/resources/reports-and-briefings/2022/may/the-impact-of-covid-19-and-covid-related-restrictions-on-forced-marriage.pdf. [14 May 2023].
21Girls Not Brides 2023, United Arab Emirates. Available from: https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/learning-resources/child-marriage-atlas/regions-and-countries/united-arab-emirates/. [9 May 2023].
22International Labour Organization 2021, “United Arab Emirates,” International Labour Organization. Available from: https://www.ilo.org/beirut/countries/united-arab-emirates/WCMS_533531/index.htm
23Qadri, M. 2020, The UAE’s Kafala System: Harmless or Human Trafficking? In Page, MT & Vittori, J. (eds), Dubai’s role in facilitating corruption and global illicit financial flows. Available from: https://carnegieendowment.org/2020/07/07/uae-s-kafala-system-harmless-or-human-trafficking-pub-82188. [28 January 2021].
24Migrant‐Rights.Org n.d., Abolish Absconding Charges. Available from: https://www.migrant-rights.org/campaign/abolish-absconding-charges/. [16 May 2023].
25As above
26Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report‐ United Arab Emirates country narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 564‐569. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/20221020-2022-TIP-Report.pdf. [15 May 2023], Al Amir, S 2020, ‘Dubai sponsors who report absconding domestic workers in line for Dh10,000 refund’, The National News, 27 September. Available From: https://www.thenationalnews.com/uae/courts/dubai‐sponsors‐who‐report‐absconding‐domestic‐workers‐in‐line‐for‐dh10‐000‐refund‐1.1084104. [17 May 2023].
27Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report‐ United Arab Emirates country narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 564‐569. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/20221020-2022-TIP-Report.pdf. [15 May 2023].
28Human Rights Watch 2021, Human Rights Watch Submission to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women Review of United Arab Emirates periodic report for the 80th Pre‐SessionFebruary 2021, pp. 5‐6. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/media_2021/03/HRW%20UAE%20Submission%20February%202021.pdf. [6 May 2023], Dubai Foundation for Women and Children 2020, Annual Infographic Report 2020, pp. 8‐13. Available from: https://www.dfwac.ae/sites/default/files/Annual-Infographic-Report-2020_English.pdf. [5 May 2023], Dubai Foundation for Women and Children 2019, Annual Infographic Report 2019, pp. 8‐14. Available from: https://www.dfwac.ae/sites/default/files/Annual-Infographic-Report-English-final-2019.pdf. [5 May 2023].
29Dubai Foundation for Women and Children 2020, Annual Infographic Report 2020, pp. 8‐13. Available from: https://www.dfwac.ae/sites/default/files/Annual-Infographic-Report-2020_English.pdf. [5 May 2023].
30Federal Law No. 28 of 2005, art 30(3). Available from: https://elaws.moj.gov.ae/engLEGI.aspx. [22 January 2021].
31Federal Law No. 28 of 2005, art 30(4). Available from: https://elaws.moj.gov.ae/engLEGI.aspx. [22 January 2021].
32Musawah 2022, Thematic Report on Muslim Family Law and Muslim Womens Rights in The United Arab Emirates (UAE), p. 4. Available from: https://www.musawah.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Submission-UAE-CEDAW82-Musawah.pdf [16 May 2023].
33Musawah 2022, Thematic Report on Muslim Family Law and Muslim Womens Rights in The United Arab Emirates (UAE), p. 4. Available from: https://www.musawah.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Submission-UAE-CEDAW82-Musawah.pdf [16 May 2023].
34Cornwell, A, Barrington, L & Barbuscia, D 2020, ‘UAE’s migrant workers fret over future in coronavirus economy’, Reuters, 22 July. Available From: https://www.reuters.com/article/us‐health‐coronavirus‐emirates‐jobs‐idUSKCN24N0Q7. [18 May 2023].
35Equidem 2020, The Cost of Contagion: The human rights impacts of COVID‐19 on migrant workers in the Gulf. Available from: https://www.equidem.org/assets/downloads/1837_Equidem_The_Cost_of_Congation_Report_ART_WEB.pdf. [30 November 2021], Ministerial Resolution No. (279) of 2020 Regarding the stability of employment in private sector companies during the period of applying precautionary measures to contain the spread of the Novel Corona virus, 2020 (United Arab Emirates)
36Equidem 2022, Exposed. Discrimination and forced labour practices at Expo 2020 Dubai. Available from: https://www.equidem.org/reports/exposed. [2 May 2023].
37United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2022, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2022. Country profiles, North Africa and the Middle East, pp. 47‐49. Available from: https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/2022/North_Africa_and_the_Middle_East.pdf. [3 May 2023]. Government, UAE 2023, Combatting human trafficking, United Arab Emirates Government Portal. Available from: https://u.ae/en/about-the-uae/human-rights-in-the-uae/combatting-human-trafficking. [6 May 2023].
38United Arab Emirates 2020, “Combatting human trafficking,” United Arab Emirates Government Portal. Available from: https://u.ae/en/about-the-uae/human-rights-in-the-uae/combatting-human-trafficking. [27 January 2021]. Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persos Report: United Arab Emirates Country Narrative, pp. 564‐569. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/20221020-2022-TIP-Report.pdf. [1 May 2022], Qadri M 2020, Dubais Role in Facilitating Corruption and Global Illicit Financial Flows, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, pp. 79‐83. Available from: https://carnegieendowment.org/files/PageVittori_DubaiCorruption_final.pdf. [3 May 2023].
39Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report‐ United Arab Emirates country narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 564‐569. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/20221020-2022-TIP-Report.pdf. [15 May 2023].
40National Committee to Combat Human Trafficking 2020, Annual Report of The National Commitee to Combat Human Trafficking 2020, Government of the United Arab Emirates, p. 8. Available from: http://www.nccht.gov.ae/download.aspx?FileID=139&download=1. [30 August 2021]. National Committee to Combat Human Trafficking 2019, Annual Report of The National Commitee to Combat Human Trafficking 2019, Government of the United Arab Emirates. Available from: http://www.nccht.gov.ae/download.aspx?FileID=128&download=1. [30 August 2021].
41Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persos Report: United Arab Emirates Country Narrative, pp. 564‐569. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/20221020-2022-TIP-Report.pdf. [1 May 2022], Qadri M 2020, Dubais Role in Facilitating Corruption and Global Illicit Financial Flows, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, pp. 79‐83. Available from: https://carnegieendowment.org/files/PageVittori_DubaiCorruption_final.pdf. [3 May 2023].
42Federal Law No. 28 of 2005, art 30(2).
43Federal Law No. 28 of 2005, art 30(2); United Arab Emirates 2020, “Marriage,” United Arab Emirates Government Portal. Available from: https://u.ae/en/information-and-services/social-affairs/marriage#:~:text=Marriage%20contract%20needs%20to%20be,premarital%20screening%20certificate%20is%20needed. [28 January 2021]; Girls Not Brides 2021, United Arab Emirates, Girls Not Brides. Available from: https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/united-arab-emirates/. [20 January 2021].
44Promulgation of the Penal Code, 1987 (No. 3 of 1987) (United Arab Emirates) art 347
45Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persos Report: United Arab Emirates Country Narrative, pp. 564‐569. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/20221020-2022-TIP-Report.pdf. [1 May 2022], Qadri M 2020, Dubais Role in Facilitating Corruption and Global Illicit Financial Flows, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, pp. 79‐83. Available from: https://carnegieendowment.org/files/PageVittori_DubaiCorruption_final.pdf. [3 May 2023].
46Federal Law No. (51) of 2006 on Combating Human Trafficking Crimes, as amended under Federal Law No. (1) of 2015 (United Arab Emirates) 11
47International Labour Organisation 2020, A global comparative study on defining recruitment fees and related costs. Interregional research on law, policy and practice, p. 30. Available from: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—ed_protect/—protrav/—migrant/documents/publication/wcms_761729.pdf. [6 May 2023].
48Qadri, M. 2020, The UAE’s Kafala System: Harmless or Human Trafficking? In Page, M. T. and Vittori, J. (eds), Dubais role in facilitating corruption and global illicit financial flows. Available from: https://carnegieendowment.org/2020/07/07/uae-s-kafala-system-harmless-or-human-trafficking-pub-82188. [28 January 2021].Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persos Report: United Arab Emirates Country Narrative, pp. 564‐569. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/20221020-2022-TIP-Report.pdf. [1 May 2022].
49Institute for Human Rights and Business 2016, Recruitment fees. Available from: https://www.ihrb.org/uploads/briefings/2016‐05%2C_IHRB_Briefing%2C_Recruitment_Fees.pdf. [1 February 2021]; Qadri M 2020, Dubais Role in Facilitating Corruption and Global Illicit Financial Flows, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, pp. 79‐83. Available from: https://carnegieendowment.org/files/PageVittori_DubaiCorruption_final.pdf. [3 May 2023], Kadıoğlu, U 2022, ‘Taken Hostage in the UAE’, Harvard International Review, 29 July 2022. Available From: https://hir.harvard.edu/taken‐hostage‐in‐the‐uae/. [3 May 20223].
50Ministerial Decree No. 766 of 2015 on rules and conditions for granting a permit to a worker for employment by a new employer, 2015 (United Arab Emirates) art 1(III)
51Bureau of Democracy Human Rights and Labour 2023, United Arab Emirates 2022 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, U.S. Department of State, pp. 28‐29, 40. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/united-arab-emirates/. [7 May 2023].
52Federal Decree‐Law No. 9 of 2022 Concerning Domestic Workers, 2022 (United Arab Emirates) art. 20
53Migrant‐Rights.Org 2022, ‘Critical protection gaps remain in UAE’s new domestic worker law’, 28 November. Available From: https://www.migrant-rights.org/2022/11/critical-protection-gaps-remain-in-uaes-new-domestic-worker-law/ [16 May 2023].
54Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2021, Trafficking in Persons Report: United Arab Emirates Country Narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 575‐580. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR-GPA-upload-07222021.pdf. [11 March 2022]. National Committee to Combat Human Trafficking n.d., NCCHT members. Available from: http://www.nccht.gov.ae/default.aspx?PageId=4. [16 May 2023].
55Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2021, Trafficking in Persons Report: United Arab Emirates Country Narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 575‐580. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR-GPA-upload-07222021.pdf. [11 March 2022].
56As above
57National Committee to Combat Human Trafficking n.d., Publications, United Arab Emirates. Available from: http://www.nccht.gov.ae/default.aspx?PageId=12. [16 May 2023].